原文 · 未翻译
CoVe NMT Recap Use CoVe in Downstream Tasks
NMT Recap
Use CoVe in Downstream Tasks
ELMo Bidirectional Language Model ELMo Representations Use ELMo in Downstream Tasks
Bidirectional Language Model
ELMo Representations
Use ELMo in Downstream Tasks
Cross-View Training Model Architecture Multi-Task Learning Use CVT in Downstream Tasks
Model Architecture
Multi-Task Learning
Use CVT in Downstream Tasks
ULMFiT
GPT Transformer Decoder as Language Model Byte Pair Encoding Supervised Fine-Tuning
Transformer Decoder as Language Model
Byte Pair Encoding
Supervised Fine-Tuning
BERT Pre-training Tasks Input Embedding Use BERT in Downstream Tasks
Pre-training Tasks
Input Embedding
Use BERT in Downstream Tasks
ALBERT Factorized Embedding Parameterization Cross-layer Parameter Sharing Sentence-Order Prediction (SOP)
Factorized Embedding Parameterization
Cross-layer Parameter Sharing
Sentence-Order Prediction (SOP)
GPT-2 Zero-Shot Transfer BPE on Byte Sequences Model Modifications
Zero-Shot Transfer
BPE on Byte Sequences
Model Modifications
RoBERTa
T5
GPT-3
XLNet
BART
ELECTRA
Summary
Metric: Perplexity
Common Tasks and Datasets
Reference
[Updated on 2019-02-14: add ULMFiT and GPT-2.] [Updated on 2020-02-29: add ALBERT.] [Updated on 2020-10-25: add RoBERTa.] [Updated on 2020-12-13: add T5.] [Updated on 2020-12-30: add GPT-3.] [Updated on 2021-11-13: add XLNet, BART and ELECTRA; Also updated the Summary section.]
We have seen amazing progress in NLP in 2018. Large-scale pre-trained language modes like OpenAI GPT and BERT have achieved great performance on a variety of language tasks using generic model architectures. The idea is similar to how ImageNet classification pre-training helps many vision tasks (*). Even better than vision classification pre-training, this simple and powerful approach in NLP does not require labeled data for pre-training, allowing us to experiment with increased training scale, up to our very limit.
(*) He et al. (2018) found that pre-training might not be necessary for image segmentation task.
In my previous NLP post on word embedding, the introduced embeddings are not context-specific — they are learned based on word concurrency but not sequential context. So in two sentences, “I am eating an apple” and “I have an Apple phone”, two “apple” words refer to very different things but they would still share the same word embedding vector.
Despite this, early adoption of word embeddings in problem-solving is to use them as additional features for an existing task-specific model and in a way the improvement is bounded.
In this post, we will discuss how various approaches were proposed to make embeddings dependent on context, and to make them easier and cheaper to be applied to downstream tasks in general form.
CoVe#
CoVe (McCann et al. 2017), short for Contextual Word Vectors, is a type of word embeddings learned by an encoder in an attentional seq-to-seq machine translation model. Different from traditional word embeddings introduced here, CoVe word representations are functions of the entire input sentence.
NMT Recap#
Here the Neural Machine Translation (NMT) model is composed of a standard, two-layer, bidirectional LSTM encoder and an attentional two-layer unidirectional LSTM decoder. It is pre-trained on the English-German translation task. The encoder learns and optimizes the embedding vectors of English words in order to translate them to German. With the intuition that the encoder should capture high-level semantic and syntactic meanings before transforming words into another language, the encoder output is used to provide contextualized word embeddings for various downstream language tasks.
A sequence of $n$ words in source language (English): $x = [x_1, \dots, x_n]$.
A sequence of $m$ words in target language (German): $y = [y_1, \dots, y_m]$.
The GloVe vectors of source words: $\text{GloVe}(x)$.
Randomly initialized embedding vectors of target words: $z = [z_1, \dots, z_m]$.
The biLSTM encoder outputs a sequence of hidden states: $h = [h_1, \dots, h_n] = \text{biLSTM}(\text{GloVe}(x))$ and $h_t = [\overrightarrow{h}_t; \overleftarrow{h}_t]$ where the forward LSTM computes $\overrightarrow{h}_t = \text{LSTM}(x_t, \overrightarrow{h}_{t-1})$ and the backward computation gives us $\overleftarrow{h}_t = \text{LSTM}(x_t, \overleftarrow{h}_{t-1})$.
The attentional decoder outputs a distribution over words: $p(y_t \mid H, y_1, \dots, y_{t-1})$ where $H$ is a stack of hidden states $\{h\}$ along the time dimension:
Use CoVe in Downstream Tasks#
The hidden states of NMT encoder are defined as context vectors for other language tasks:
The paper proposed to use the concatenation of GloVe and CoVe for question-answering and classification tasks. GloVe learns from the ratios of global word co-occurrences, so it has no sentence context, while CoVe is generated by processing text sequences is able to capture the contextual information.
Given a downstream task, we first generate the concatenation of GloVe + CoVe vectors of input words and then feed them into the task-specific models as additional features.
Summary: The limitation of CoVe is obvious: (1) pre-training is bounded by available datasets on the supervised translation task; (2) the contribution of CoVe to the final performance is constrained by the task-specific model architecture.
In the following sections, we will see that ELMo overcomes issue (1) by unsupervised pre-training and OpenAI GPT & BERT further overcome both problems by unsupervised pre-training + using generative model architecture for different downstream tasks.
ELMo#
ELMo, short for Embeddings from Language Model (Peters, et al, 2018) learns contextualized word representation by pre-training a language model in an unsupervised way.
Bidirectional Language Model#
The bidirectional Language Model (biLM) is the foundation for ELMo. While the input is a sequence of $n$ tokens, $(x_1, \dots, x_n)$, the language model learns to predict the probability of next token given the history.
In the forward pass, the history contains words before the target token,
In the backward pass, the history contains words after the target token,
The predictions in both directions are modeled by multi-layer LSTMs with hidden states $\overrightarrow{\mathbf{h}}_{i,\ell}$ and $\overleftarrow{\mathbf{h}}_{i,\ell}$ for input token $x_i$ at the layer level $\ell=1,\dots,L$. The final layer’s hidden state $\mathbf{h}_{i,L} = [\overrightarrow{\mathbf{h}}_{i,L}; \overleftarrow{\mathbf{h}}_{i,L}]$ is used to output the probabilities over tokens after softmax normalization. They share the embedding layer and the softmax layer, parameterized by $\Theta_e$ and $\Theta_s$ respectively.
The model is trained to minimize the negative log likelihood (= maximize the log likelihood for true words) in both directions:
ELMo Representations#
On top of a $L$-layer biLM, ELMo stacks all the hidden states across layers together by learning a task-specific linear combination. The hidden state representation for the token $x_i$ contains $2L+1$ vectors:
where $\mathbf{h}_{0, \ell}$ is the embedding layer output and $\mathbf{h}_{i, \ell} = [\overrightarrow{\mathbf{h}}_{i,\ell}; \overleftarrow{\mathbf{h}}_{i,\ell}]$.
The weights, $\mathbf{s}^\text{task}$, in the linear combination are learned for each end task and normalized by softmax. The scaling factor $\gamma^\text{task}$ is used to correct the misalignment between the distribution of biLM hidden states and the distribution of task specific representations.
To evaluate what kind of information is captured by hidden states across different layers, ELMo is applied on semantic-intensive and syntax-intensive tasks respectively using representations in different layers of biLM:
Semantic task: The word sense disambiguation (WSD) task emphasizes the meaning of a word given a context. The biLM top layer is better at this task than the first layer.
Syntax task: The part-of-speech (POS) tagging task aims to infer the grammatical role of a word in one sentence. A higher accuracy can be achieved by using the biLM first layer than the top layer.
The comparison study indicates that syntactic information is better represented at lower layers while semantic information is captured by higher layers. Because different layers tend to carry different type of information, stacking them together helps.
Use ELMo in Downstream Tasks#
Similar to how CoVe can help different downstream tasks, ELMo embedding vectors are included in the input or lower levels of task-specific models. Moreover, for some tasks (i.e., SNLI and SQuAD, but not SRL), adding them into the output level helps too.
The improvements brought up by ELMo are largest for tasks with a small supervised dataset. With ELMo, we can also achieve similar performance with much less labeled data.
Summary: The language model pre-training is unsupervised and theoretically the pre-training can be scaled up as much as possible since the unlabeled text corpora are abundant. However, it still has the dependency on task-customized models and thus the improvement is only incremental, while searching for a good model architecture for every task remains non-trivial.
Cross-View Training#
In ELMo the unsupervised pre-training and task-specific learning happen for two independent models in two separate training stages. Cross-View Training (abbr. CVT; Clark et al., 2018) combines them into one unified semi-supervised learning procedure where the representation of a biLSTM encoder is improved by both supervised learning with labeled data and unsupervised learning with unlabeled data on auxiliary tasks.
Model Architecture#
The model consists of a two-layer bidirectional LSTM encoder and a primary prediction module. During training, the model is fed with labeled and unlabeled data batches alternatively.
On labeled examples, all the model parameters are updated by standard supervised learning. The loss is the standard cross entropy.
On unlabeled examples, the primary prediction module still can produce a “soft” target, even though we cannot know exactly how accurate they are. In a couple of auxiliary tasks, the predictor only sees and processes a restricted view of the input, such as only using encoder hidden state representation in one direction. The auxiliary task outputs are expected to match the primary prediction target for a full view of input. In this way, the encoder is forced to distill the knowledge of the full context into partial representation. At this stage, the biLSTM encoder is backpropagated but the primary prediction module is fixed. The loss is to minimize the distance between auxiliary and primary predictions.
Multi-Task Learning#
When training for multiple tasks simultaneously, CVT adds several extra primary prediction models for additional tasks. They all share the same sentence representation encoder. During supervised training, once one task is randomly selected, parameters in its corresponding predictor and the representation encoder are updated. With unlabeled data samples, the encoder is optimized jointly across all the tasks by minimizing the differences between auxiliary outputs and primary prediction for every task.
The multi-task learning encourages better generality of representation and in the meantime produces a nice side-product: all-tasks-labeled examples from unlabeled data. They are precious data labels considering that cross-task labels are useful but fairly rare.
Use CVT in Downstream Tasks#
Theoretically the primary prediction module can take any form, generic or task-specific design. The examples presented in the CVT paper include both cases.
In sequential tagging tasks (classification for every token) like NER or POS tagging, the predictor module contains two fully connected layers and a softmax layer on the output to produce a probability distribution over class labels. For each token $\mathbf{x}_i$, we take the corresponding hidden states in two layers, $\mathbf{h}_1^{(i)}$ and $\mathbf{h}_2^{(i)}$:
The auxiliary tasks are only fed with forward or backward LSTM state in the first layer. Because they only observe partial context, either on the left or right, they have to learn like a language model, trying to predict the next token given the context. The fwd and bwd auxiliary tasks only take one direction. The future and past tasks take one step further in forward and backward direction, respectively.
fwd
bwd
future
past
Note that if the primary prediction module has dropout, the dropout layer works as usual when training with labeled data, but it is not applied when generating “soft” target for auxiliary tasks during training with unlabeled data.
In the machine translation task, the primary prediction module is replaced with a standard unidirectional LSTM decoder with attention. There are two auxiliary tasks: (1) apply dropout on the attention weight vector by randomly zeroing out some values; (2) predict the future word in the target sequence. The primary prediction for auxiliary tasks to match is the best predicted target sequence produced by running the fixed primary decoder on the input sequence with beam search.
ULMFiT#
The idea of using generative pretrained LM + task-specific fine-tuning was first explored in ULMFiT (Howard & Ruder, 2018), directly motivated by the success of using ImageNet pre-training for computer vision tasks. The base model is AWD-LSTM.
ULMFiT follows three steps to achieve good transfer learning results on downstream language classification tasks:
General LM pre-training: on Wikipedia text.
General LM pre-training: on Wikipedia text.
Target task LM fine-tuning: ULMFiT proposed two training techniques for stabilizing the fine-tuning process. See below.
Target task LM fine-tuning: ULMFiT proposed two training techniques for stabilizing the fine-tuning process. See below.
Discriminative fine-tuning is motivated by the fact that different layers of LM capture different types of information (see discussion above). ULMFiT proposed to tune each layer with different learning rates, $\{\eta^1, \dots, \eta^\ell, \dots, \eta^L\}$, where $\eta$ is the base learning rate for the first layer, $\eta^\ell$ is for the $\ell$-th layer and there are $L$ layers in total.
Discriminative fine-tuning is motivated by the fact that different layers of LM capture different types of information (see discussion above). ULMFiT proposed to tune each layer with different learning rates, $\{\eta^1, \dots, \eta^\ell, \dots, \eta^L\}$, where $\eta$ is the base learning rate for the first layer, $\eta^\ell$ is for the $\ell$-th layer and there are $L$ layers in total.
Slanted triangular learning rates (STLR) refer to a special learning rate scheduling that first linearly increases the learning rate and then linearly decays it. The increase stage is short so that the model can converge to a parameter space suitable for the task fast, while the decay period is long allowing for better fine-tuning.
Slanted triangular learning rates (STLR) refer to a special learning rate scheduling that first linearly increases the learning rate and then linearly decays it. The increase stage is short so that the model can converge to a parameter space suitable for the task fast, while the decay period is long allowing for better fine-tuning.
Target task classifier fine-tuning: The pretrained LM is augmented with two standard feed-forward layers and a softmax normalization at the end to predict a target label distribution.
Concat pooling extracts max-polling and mean-pooling over the history of hidden states and concatenates them with the final hidden state.
Concat pooling extracts max-polling and mean-pooling over the history of hidden states and concatenates them with the final hidden state.
Gradual unfreezing helps to avoid catastrophic forgetting by gradually unfreezing the model layers starting from the last one. First the last layer is unfrozen and fine-tuned for one epoch. Then the next lower layer is unfrozen. This process is repeated until all the layers are tuned.
Gradual unfreezing helps to avoid catastrophic forgetting by gradually unfreezing the model layers starting from the last one. First the last layer is unfrozen and fine-tuned for one epoch. Then the next lower layer is unfrozen. This process is repeated until all the layers are tuned.
GPT#
Following the similar idea of ELMo, OpenAI GPT, short for Generative Pre-training Transformer (Radford et al., 2018), expands the unsupervised language model to a much larger scale by training on a giant collection of free text corpora. Despite of the similarity, GPT has two major differences from ELMo.
The model architectures are different: ELMo uses a shallow concatenation of independently trained left-to-right and right-to-left multi-layer LSTMs, while GPT is a multi-layer transformer decoder.
The use of contextualized embeddings in downstream tasks are different: ELMo feeds embeddings into models customized for specific tasks as additional features, while GPT fine-tunes the same base model for all end tasks.
Transformer Decoder as Language Model#
Compared to the original transformer architecture, the transformer decoder model discards the encoder part, so there is only one single input sentence rather than two separate source and target sequences.
This model applies multiple transformer blocks over the embeddings of input sequences. Each block contains a masked multi-headed self-attention layer and a pointwise feed-forward layer. The final output produces a distribution over target tokens after softmax normalization.
The loss is the negative log-likelihood, same as ELMo, but without backward computation. Let’s say, the context window of the size $k$ is located before the target word and the loss would look like:
Byte Pair Encoding#
Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) is used to encode the input sequences. BPE was originally proposed as a data compression algorithm in 1990s and then was adopted to solve the open-vocabulary issue in machine translation, as we can easily run into rare and unknown words when translating into a new language. Motivated by the intuition that rare and unknown words can often be decomposed into multiple subwords, BPE finds the best word segmentation by iteratively and greedily merging frequent pairs of characters.
Supervised Fine-Tuning#
The most substantial upgrade that OpenAI GPT proposed is to get rid of the task-specific model and use the pre-trained language model directly!
Let’s take classification as an example. Say, in the labeled dataset, each input has $n$ tokens, $\mathbf{x} = (x_1, \dots, x_n)$, and one label $y$. GPT first processes the input sequence $\mathbf{x}$ through the pre-trained transformer decoder and the last layer output for the last token $x_n$ is $\mathbf{h}_L^{(n)}$. Then with only one new trainable weight matrix $\mathbf{W}_y$, it can predict a distribution over class labels.
The loss is to minimize the negative log-likelihood for true labels. In addition, adding the LM loss as an auxiliary loss is found to be beneficial, because:
(1) it helps accelerate convergence during training and
(2) it is expected to improve the generalization of the supervised model.
With similar designs, no customized model structure is needed for other end tasks (see Fig. 7). If the task input contains multiple sentences, a special delimiter token ($) is added between each pair of sentences. The embedding for this delimiter token is a new parameter we need to learn, but it should be pretty minimal.
$
For the sentence similarity task, because the ordering does not matter, both orderings are included. For the multiple choice task, the context is paired with every answer candidate.
Summary: It is super neat and encouraging to see that such a general framework is capable to beat SOTA on most language tasks at that time (June 2018). At the first stage, generative pre-training of a language model can absorb as much free text as possible. Then at the second stage, the model is fine-tuned on specific tasks with a small labeled dataset and a minimal set of new parameters to learn.
One limitation of GPT is its uni-directional nature — the model is only trained to predict the future left-to-right context.
BERT#
BERT, short for Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (Devlin, et al., 2019) is a direct descendant to GPT: train a large language model on free text and then fine-tune on specific tasks without customized network architectures.
Compared to GPT, the largest difference and improvement of BERT is to make training bi-directional. The model learns to predict both context on the left and right. The paper according to the ablation study claimed that:
“bidirectional nature of our model is the single most important new contribution”
“bidirectional nature of our model is the single most important new contribution”
Pre-training Tasks#
The model architecture of BERT is a multi-layer bidirectional Transformer encoder.
To encourage the bi-directional prediction and sentence-level understanding, BERT is trained with two tasks instead of the basic language task (that is, to predict the next token given context).
*Task 1: Mask language model (MLM)
From Wikipedia: “A cloze test (also cloze deletion test) is an exercise, test, or assessment consisting of a portion of language with certain items, words, or signs removed (cloze text), where the participant is asked to replace the missing language item. … The exercise was first described by W.L. Taylor in 1953.”
From Wikipedia: “A cloze test (also cloze deletion test) is an exercise, test, or assessment consisting of a portion of language with certain items, words, or signs removed (cloze text), where the participant is asked to replace the missing language item. … The exercise was first described by W.L. Taylor in 1953.”
It is unsurprising to believe that a representation that learns the context around a word rather than just after the word is able to better capture its meaning, both syntactically and semantically. BERT encourages the model to do so by training on the “mask language model” task:
Randomly mask 15% of tokens in each sequence. Because if we only replace masked tokens with a special placeholder [MASK], the special token would never be encountered during fine-tuning. Hence, BERT employed several heuristic tricks: (a) with 80% probability, replace the chosen words with [MASK]; (b) with 10% probability, replace with a random word; (c) with 10% probability, keep it the same.
[MASK]
(a) with 80% probability, replace the chosen words with [MASK];
[MASK]
(b) with 10% probability, replace with a random word;
(c) with 10% probability, keep it the same.
The model only predicts the missing words, but it has no information on which words have been replaced or which words should be predicted. The output size is only 15% of the input size.
Task 2: Next sentence prediction
Motivated by the fact that many downstream tasks involve the understanding of relationships between sentences (i.e., QA, NLI), BERT added another auxiliary task on training a binary classifier for telling whether one sentence is the next sentence of the other:
Sample sentence pairs (A, B) so that: (a) 50% of the time, B follows A; (b) 50% of the time, B does not follow A.
(a) 50% of the time, B follows A;
(b) 50% of the time, B does not follow A.
The model processes both sentences and output a binary label indicating whether B is the next sentence of A.
The training data for both auxiliary tasks above can be trivially generated from any monolingual corpus. Hence the scale of training is unbounded. The training loss is the sum of the mean masked LM likelihood and mean next sentence prediction likelihood.
Input Embedding#
The input embedding is the sum of three parts:
WordPiece tokenization embeddings: The WordPiece model was originally proposed for Japanese or Korean segmentation problem. Instead of using naturally split English word, they can be further divided into smaller sub-word units so that it is more effective to handle rare or unknown words. Please read linked papers for the optimal way to split words if interested.
Segment embeddings: If the input contains two sentences, they have sentence A embeddings and sentence B embeddings respectively and they are separated by a special character [SEP]; Only sentence A embeddings are used if the input only contains one sentence.
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Position embeddings: Positional embeddings are learned rather than hard-coded.
Note that the first token is always forced to be [CLS] — a placeholder that will be used later for prediction in downstream tasks.
[CLS]
Use BERT in Downstream Tasks#
BERT fine-tuning requires only a few new parameters added, just like OpenAI GPT.
For classification tasks, we get the prediction by taking the final hidden state of the special first token [CLS], $\mathbf{h}^\text{[CLS]}_L$, and multiplying it with a small weight matrix, $\text{softmax}(\mathbf{h}^\text{[CLS]}_L \mathbf{W}_\text{cls})$.
[CLS]
For QA tasks like SQuAD, we need to predict the text span in the given paragraph for an given question. BERT predicts two probability distributions of every token, being the start and the end of the text span. Only two new small matrices, $\mathbf{W}_\text{s}$ and $\mathbf{W}_\text{e}$, are newly learned during fine-tuning and $\text{softmax}(\mathbf{h}^\text{(i)}_L \mathbf{W}_\text{s})$ and $\text{softmax}(\mathbf{h}^\text{(i)}_L \mathbf{W}_\text{e})$ define two probability distributions.
Overall the add-on part for end task fine-tuning is very minimal — one or two weight matrices to convert the Transform hidden states to an interpretable format. Check the paper for implementation details for other cases.
A summary table compares differences between fine-tuning of OpenAI GPT and BERT.
| | OpenAI GPT | BERT | | Special char | [SEP] and [CLS] are only introduced at fine-tuning stage. | [SEP] and [CLS] and sentence A/B embeddings are learned at the pre-training stage. | | Training process | 1M steps, batch size 32k words. | 1M steps, batch size 128k words. | | Fine-tuning | lr = 5e-5 for all fine-tuning tasks. | Use task-specific lr for fine-tuning. |
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[CLS]
ALBERT#
ALBERT (Lan, et al. 2019), short for A Lite BERT, is a light-weighted version of BERT model. An ALBERT model can be trained 1.7x faster with 18x fewer parameters, compared to a BERT model of similar configuration. ALBERT incorporates three changes as follows: the first two help reduce parameters and memory consumption and hence speed up the training speed, while the third one proposes a more chanllenging training task to replace the next sentence prediction (NSP) objective.
Factorized Embedding Parameterization#
In BERT, the WordPiece tokenization embedding size $E$ is configured to be the same as the hidden state size $H$. That is saying, if we want to increase the model size (larger $H$), we need to learn a larger tokenization embedding too, which is expensive because it depends on the vocabulary size ($V$).
Conceptually, because the tokenization embedding is expected to learn context-independent representation and the hidden states are context-dependent, it makes sense to separate the size of the hidden layers from the size of vocabulary embedding. Using factorized embedding parameterization, the large vocabulary embedding matrix of size $V \times H$ is decomposed into two small matrices of size $V \times E$ and $E \times H$. Given $H \gt E$ or even $H \gg E$, factorization can result in significant parameter reduction.
Cross-layer Parameter Sharing#
Parameter sharing across layers can happen in many ways: (a) only share feed-forward part; (b) only share attention parameters; or (c) share all the parameters. This technique reduces the number of parameters by a ton and does not damage the performance too much.
Sentence-Order Prediction (SOP)#
Interestingly, the next sentence prediction (NSP) task of BERT turned out to be too easy. ALBERT instead adopted a sentence-order prediction (SOP) self-supervised loss,
Positive sample: two consecutive segments from the same document.
Negative sample: same as above, but the segment order is switched.
For the NSP task, the model can make reasonable predictions if it is able to detect topics when A and B are from different contexts. In comparison, SOP is harder as it requires the model to fully understand the coherence and ordering between segments.
GPT-2#
The OpenAI GPT-2 language model is a direct successor to GPT. GPT-2 has 1.5B parameters, 10x more than the original GPT, and it achieves SOTA results on 7 out of 8 tested language modeling datasets in a zero-shot transfer setting without any task-specific fine-tuning. The pre-training dataset contains 8 million Web pages collected by crawling qualified outbound links from Reddit. Large improvements by OpenAI GPT-2 are specially noticeable on small datasets and datasets used for measuring long-term dependency.
Zero-Shot Transfer#
The pre-training task for GPT-2 is solely language modeling. All the downstream language tasks are framed as predicting conditional probabilities and there is no task-specific fine-tuning.
Text generation is straightforward using LM.
Machine translation task, for example, English to Chinese, is induced by conditioning LM on pairs of “English sentence = Chinese sentence” and “the target English sentence =” at the end. For example, the conditional probability to predict might look like: P(? | I like green apples. = 我喜欢绿苹果。 A cat meows at him. = 一只猫对他喵。It is raining cats and dogs. =")